Russia has significant potential for reducing its carbon emissions. However, investment in new low-carbon technologies has significant risks. Ambiguous energy and climate policy in Russia, along with deterioration of the country's investment climate, create investment barriers that are well described in qualitative terms in the literature. This paper attempts to provide a quantitative analysis of these barriers. For this numerical experiment, we apply the RU-TIMES model. Using a real options methodology, we estimate the risk-adjusted cost of capital in the Russian energy sector (including energy production and consumption technologies represented in the TIMES framework) to be approximately 43% (including a risk-free interest rate) and demonstrate the high risk of investment into energy-efficient and low-carbon technologies. Any future low-carbon emissions pathway depends on the ability of the Russian government to reduce climate and energy policy uncertainties, and to reduce financial risks through improvements of the general investment climate.
Key policy insights
The high cost of capital investment into Russian energy production and consumption may prevent the adoption of new energy-efficient and low-carbon technologies.
These investment risks, if not addressed, will delay Russia's low-carbon transition for the coming decades.
Adopting a clear and unambiguous long-term climate and energy policy is important to reduce these risks and alleviate some of the barriers to the new technologies.
The first step could be ratification of the Paris Agreement and adoption of a long-term emission target for the period up to 2050.
Satellite laser ranging (SLR) is an important technique that contributes to the determination of terrestrial geodetic reference frames, especially to the realization of the origin and the scale of global networks. One of the major limiting factors of SLR-derived reference frame realizations is the datum accuracy which significantly suffers from the current global SLR station distribution. In this paper, the impact of a potential future development of the SLR network on the estimated datum parameters is investigated. The current status of the SLR network is compared to a simulated potential future network featuring additional stations improving the global network geometry. In addition, possible technical advancements resulting in a higher amount of observations are taken into account as well. As a result, we find that the network improvement causes a decrease in the scatter of the network translation parameters of up to 24%, and up to 20% for the scale, whereas the technological improvement causes a reduction in the scatter of up to 27% for the translations and up to 49% for the scale. The Earth orientation parameters benefit by up to 15% from both effects. 相似文献
Mathematical Geosciences - In surface mining, assay measurements taken from production drilling often provide useful information that enables initially inaccurate surfaces (for example,... 相似文献
The article deals with phase relations in the KFeS2–Fe–S system studied by the dry synthesis method in the range of 300–600 °C and at a pressure of 1 bar. At the temperature below 513?±?3 °C, pyrite coexists with rasvumite and there are pyrite–rasvumite–KFeS2 and pyrite–rasvumite–pyrrhotite equilibria established. Above 513?±?3 °C pyrite and rasvumite react to form KFeS2 and pyrrhotite, limiting the pyrite–rasvumite association to temperatures below this in nature. The experiments also outline the compositional stability range of the copper-free analog of murunskite (KxFe2?yS2) and suggest that mineral called bartonite is not stable in the Cl-free system, at least at atmospheric pressure and the temperature in the experiments. Chlorbartonite could be easily produced after adding KCl in the experiment. Possible parageneses in the quaternary K–Fe–S–Cl system were described based on the data obtained in this research and found in the previous studies. The factors affecting the formation of potassium–iron sulfides in nature were discussed. 相似文献
Awareness about the threats posed by different types of coastal disasters has increased throughout the world, as people are exposed to the nature of these hazards through media reports on events in distant countries. This has resulted in coastal residents being aware about the destructive power of tsunamis, despite no such events having taken place in their country in recent times. Regardless of this increased awareness, it has been hypothesized that there is still need for local governments to enact adequate policies to raise the awareness of local residents, for example, by holding regular evacuation drills. The present research presents a comparative assessment of tsunami awareness in two tourist destinations in Japan and the USA, which was derived through structured questionnaire surveys of beach users in the city of Kamakura and various coastal cities in Florida. The results show how despite relatively high level of awareness tsunamis still pose a considerable risk to each of the communities, for example, due to shortcoming in evacuation knowledge and infrastructure. 相似文献
Based on a comprehensive analysis of kimberlite pipes of Angola, including the near surface structural setting, deep lithospheric structure, pipe morphology and emplacement, mineralogical and petrographic features, diamond characteristics and locations of secondary deposits four geographical regions have been outlined within Angola representing four types of diamond bearing potential. These areas include high diamond bearing potential pipes, possible potential, no potential, and unclear potential areas. It was found that the depth of magmatism and diamond potential of kimberlites increases from the Atlantic coast in southwestern Angola into the continent in the north-easterly direction. Areas prospective for the discovery of new primary diamond deposits have been identified.
OpenStreetMap (OSM) represents one of the most well‐known examples of a collaborative mapping project. Major research efforts have so far dealt with data quality analysis but the modality of OSM's evolution across space and time has barely been noted. This study aims to analyze spatio‐temporal patterns of contributions in OSM by proposing a contribution index (CI) in order to investigate the dynamism of OSM. The CI is based on a per cell analysis of the node quantity, interactivity, semantics, and attractivity (the ability to attract contributors). Additionally this research explores whether OSM has been constantly attracting new users and contributions or if OSM has experienced a decline in its ability to attract continued contributions. Using the Stuttgart region of Germany as a case study the empirical findings of the CI over time confirm that since 2007, OSM has been constantly attracting new users, who create new features, edit the existing spatial objects, and enrich them with attributes. This rate has been dramatically growing since 2011. The utilization of a Cellular Automata‐Markov (CA‐Markov) model provides evidence that by the end of 2016 and 2020, the rise of CI will spread out over the study area and only a few cells without OSM features will remain. 相似文献
Changes in forest composition impact ecological services, and are considered important factors driving global climate change. A hybrid sampling method along with a modelling approach to map current and past land cover in Kunming, China is reported. MODIS land cover (2001–2011) data-sets were used to detect pixels with no apparent change. Around 3000 ‘no change points’ were systematically selected and sampled using Google Earth’s high-resolution imagery. Thirty-five per cent of these points were verified and used for training and validation. We used Random forests to classify multi-temporal Landsat imagery. Results show that forest cover has had a net decrease of 14385?ha (1.3% of forest area), which was primary converted to shrublands (11%), urban and barren land (2.7%) and agriculture (2.5%). Our validation indicates an overall accuracy (Kappa) of 82%. Our methodology can be used to consistently map the dynamics of land cover change in similar areas with minimum costs. 相似文献